27 Effective Ways to Increase Acetylcholine in the Brain

Acetylcholine is one of the most important neurotransmitters. 

It's critical for the optimal functioning of your brain. 

And you’ll definitely want to optimize your levels, especially if you’re looking to improve your memory, attention, sleep and learning abilities. 

Luckily, there are a number of ways you can increase the acetylcholine levels in your brain. 

And this article shares the best strategies with you.  

This post includes six main sections: 

• The benefits of increasing acetylcholine and how it affects brain function 

• The conditions associated with low levels of acetylcholine 

• The best choline supplements you can take to increase acetylcholine production 

• The best foods and nutrients you should eat to raise acetylcholine 

• The best herbal supplements for boosting acetylcholine 

• And the most important hormones for optimal acetylcholine levels 

Continue reading to learn more and discover how you can naturally improve your acetylcholine levels. 

The Benefits of Increasing Acetylcholine and How It Affects Your Brain

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, meaning it’s a chemical messenger released by neurons (nerve cells) to “communicate” with other neurons. 

In 1914, it was the very first neurotransmitter to be identified within the brain (82-83).  

Researchers have found that acetylcholine acts on the entire nervous system and plays a large variety of roles throughout the brain. 

But it’s most commonly associated with improved memory and learning (84-85).  

The brain actually needs enough acetylcholine to form memories. 

Research shows that acetylcholine plays a central role in synaptic plasticity, which is a process in the brain that allows brain cells to store new information and memories (88). 

Scopolamine is a drug that blocks acetylcholine activity, and it’s known to impair learning and memory in both humans and animals (86-87).  

What’s also interesting is that acetylcholine levels have even been shown to rise during REM sleep, which is the stage of sleep when humans “store and consolidate” new memories (89-91).  

But acetylcholine doesn’t just improve your memory and learning abilities.  

New studies suggest it helps you stay awake, alert and focused (92-93).  

In fact, some stimulant drugs such as amphetamines and cocaine increase the activity of acetylcholine in the brain, and researchers think acetylcholine may be responsible for the wakefulness-promoting effects of these drugs (94).  

Lastly – but perhaps most importantly – acetylcholine can promote relaxation by stimulating the vagus nerve. 

Research shows that acetylcholine can stimulate vagus nerve activity, which can reduce brain inflammation and improve cognitive function and mental health (95, 99).  

Surprisingly, acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter of the “rest-and-digest” parasympathetic nervous system. It activates the parasympathetic nervous system and counteracts “fight-or-flight” tendencies (96-98).  

Conditions Associated with Low Levels of Acetylcholine

As we get older, acetylcholine activity slowly becomes less and less efficient. Less acetylcholine is released from brain cells, and cells become less sensitive to the acetylcholine that’s released. 

Studies suggest that this is one reason why memory starts to fail in older people (100).  

But besides aging, low acetylcholine levels (and reduced acetylcholine activity in certain areas of the brain) have also been linked to the development and progression of several brain and mental health conditions.  

The biggest link is with Alzheimer's disease and dementia, as people with these conditions often have low acetylcholine levels (101-102). 

In fact, it’s estimated that patients with Alzheimer’s Disease lose 90% of the acetylcholine in their brains (107).  

Research shows that low acetylcholine in the brain can cause cognitive decline and poor memory in people with dementia and Alzheimer's disease.  

And many of the medications that are prescribed to relieve cognitive symptoms and slow down the disease’s progression often work by increasing acetylcholine in the brain and stimulating acetylcholine activity throughout the brain (103-112).  

Parkinson’s disease is another neurodegenerative disorder that is linked to low acetylcholine levels in the brain (113).  

Too little acetylcholine in the brain can also contribute to the poor cognition and psychosis seen in people suffering with schizophrenia (114-115).  

It’s also been found that patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis have lower acetylcholine levels (116).  

Lastly, children with autism may lack acetylcholine in their brain, which can contribute to their intellectual impairment. But increasing acetylcholine can improve cognitive and social symptoms (117-118).  

It’s also important to point out that many prescription medications are anticholinergic, meaning they reduce acetylcholine and inhibit the physiological action of acetylcholine in the brain.  

I used to be on several prescription drugs that were anticholinergic, and I experienced a gradual decline in my cognition. 

But once I started following and implementing some of the steps below, I noticed an improvement in cognitive function since they increased my levels of acetylcholine.  

I still follow much of the advice below because it helps me focus, remember and learn more effectively. 

The Best Choline Supplements to Increase Acetylcholine in the Brain

One of the best and most straightforward approaches to increasing acetylcholine levels is by supplementing with choline. 

Choline is an essential nutrient, meaning it can’t be made by the body. You must consume it through your diet. 

Unfortunately, most people don’t eat enough choline because very few foods in the Western diet contain high amounts of it. 

This is a huge problem because choline is a precursor to acetylcholine. It’s one of the important building blocks that the brain needs to make acetylcholine. You need to eat enough choline to synthesize enough acetylcholine in your brain. 

And in one study, researchers found that a higher intake of choline was associated with better cognitive performance (79).  

There are several types of choline supplements on the market, and many of them claim to increase choline and boost acetylcholine levels in the brain.  

But unfortunately, many of them are not effective at increasing choline levels in the brain and raising acetylcholine.  

I’ve tried all of the main choline supplements over the years.  

And I’ve found the two below to be the most effective and best options.  

That’s why they're now both included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

1. Citicoline

Citicoline (also known as CDP-Choline) is one of the most bioavailable supplemental forms of choline. 

It has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. 

Research shows that citicoline increases choline levels in the brain (1).  

Since choline helps produce acetylcholine, citicoline also increases acetylcholine in the brain (2, 5-6).  

Researchers have found that citicoline increases the synthesis and release of acetylcholine in the brain after traumatic brain injury. It also increases the number of acetylcholine receptors in your brain (4,7).  

As a result, supplementing with citicoline can improve cognition, working memory and verbal memory, and attention (80-81).  

Citicoline significantly improves my focus and mental energy. That’s why it’s in the Optimal Brain supplement.  

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of Citicoline.

2. Alpha GPC

Alpha GPC is another excellent supplemental form of choline. It’s very effective at reaching the brain and improving cognitive function.  

Researchers have found that Alpha GPC enhances cognition and improves learning and memory by increasing the release of acetylcholine in the brain (8).  

One study found that it increases levels of acetylcholine in the frontal cortex region of the brain, which improves memory, judgment and decision making (10).  

Alpha GPC can also increase the synthesis of acetylcholine in the brain, which can help treat dementia (9).  

Alpha GPC is in Optimal Brain along with citicoline.  

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of Alpha GPC, the optimal dosage, and the best way to take it.

The Best Foods and Nutrients to Increase Acetylcholine in the Brain

3. Pantethine

Pantethine is the bioactive form of Vitamin B5.  

It’s the precursor to coenzyme A. And coezyme A plays a key role in the synthesis of acetylcholine. 

So supplementing with pantethine can lead to an increase in the synthesis of acetylcholine in the brain (11-13). 

Researchers have found that chronic alcohol consumption is known to deplete pantethine in the brain. This then inhibits coenzyme A and reduces levels of acetylcholine in all areas of the brain (11-13). 

So it’s best to avoid alcohol if you want to increase your acetylcholine levels. 

And if you do drink alcohol regularly, definitely supplement with pantethine so that you can maintain your acetylcholine levels. 

Pantethine is one of my favourite supplements for energy, focus and motivation.  

That’s why I included it in the Optimal Energy supplement. 

Pantethine is also a key part of Dr. Bredesen’s protocol for preventing dementia.  

4. Acetyl-L-Carnitine

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) is an acetylated form of the amino acid carnitine.  

It’s been shown to have neuroprotective and cognitive-enhancing effects.  

It’s often used as a natural brain booster by people of all ages because it supports brain cells, enhances cognition, and increases alertness. 

One reason it works so well is because it’s the precursor to acetylcholine and increases levels of acetylcholine in the brain. It also activates acetylcholine receptors in the brain (14-15).  

As a result, researchers believe it should be used to treat cognitive decline (16).  

I find that ALCAR personally gives me a big boost in cognitive energy and resilience. It keeps me motivated to do complex tasks that require optimal brain function.  

It’s included it in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of ALCAR.

5. Zinc

Zinc is an essential mineral for brain health.  

Unfortunately, it’s estimated that 2 billion people in the world are deficient in zinc, and several studies show that even subclinical zinc deficiency impairs brain function (75-77). 

That’s a huge problem. 

Because studies show that zinc significantly inhibits acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down and reduces acetylcholine. As a result, it increases acetylcholine levels (23). 

Researchers have also found that zinc activates acetylcholine receptors in the brain (24-25).  

I created and take the Optimal Zinc supplement to make sure my zinc levels are optimal. I created it because I want to give my clients and readers the very best zinc supplement so that they can experience superior results. I have found that many zinc supplements on the market fall short.  Optimal Zinc includes several other nutrients (co-factors) that increase the absorption of zinc.  

Besides supplementing with zinc, you should also eat plenty of healthy, whole foods that contain zinc. 

Some of the best foods to optimize your zinc levels include:

• Oysters 

• Grass-fed beef 

• Pumpkin seeds 

• Cashews 

• Mushrooms 

• Spinach  

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health.  

Check out my previous post all about zinc for more steps you can take to increase your zinc levels. 

6. Epigallocatechin Gallate

Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) is the main polyphenol found in green tea.  

It’s been shown to have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. 

Research shows that EGCG improves cognitive function by increasing cholinergic neurotransmission in the brain (26).  

I personally drink organic green tea regularly, usually in place of coffee on days when I’m relaxing. 

However, it’s important to keep in mind that the body isn't very good at absorbing EGCG from green tea and distributing it to the brain and other tissues.  

That's why researchers often use large dosages of concentrated EGCG in their studies instead of green tea.  

But unfortunately, large dosages of concentrated EGCG have been shown to cause liver toxicity.  

So you could supplement with large dosages of concentrated EGCG and see some benefits.  

But you'd be damaging your liver at the same time.  

Not good.  

So what should you do? How do you absorb EGCG and get the amazing benefits of it without damaging your liver?  

You take it with Vitamin C.  

Research shows that you can enhance the absorption and availability of EGCG by taking it with Vitamin C. 

That's why the Optimal Antiox supplement includes a small and safe amount of EGCG, plus 500 mg of Vitamin C.  

This significantly enhances the absorption of EGCG, and ensures you get all the brain and mental health benefits of EGCG (without the harm).  

7. Grape Seed Extract

Grape seed extract is a supplement high in antioxidants that can help prevent memory loss and improve cognitive function.  

Grape seed extract contains high levels of an antioxidant called proanthocyanidin. 

Proanthocyanidin has been shown to increase acetylcholine levels and decrease the breakdown of acetylcholine in the brain (27).  

And one study found that taking grape seed extract every day can improve attention and memory (78).  

Grape seed extract is included in Optimal Antiox, and it contains 95% proanthocyanidins so that you get optimal results.

8. Magnesium

Magnesium is a vital mineral that participates in more than 300 biochemical reactions in your body.  

Unfortunately, a lot of people are deficient in magnesium.  

This is a shame because magnesium is absolutely essential for optimal brain function. 

Magnesium has been shown to have a strong accelerating action on the synthesis of acetylcholine (28).  

The mineral also increases the effectiveness of drugs that slow down the breakdown of acetylcholine (29). 

Since most people are deficient, magnesium is one of the three supplements that I think everyone should be taking every day.  

Epsom salt baths are another great way to increase your body’s intake of magnesium. 

You should also make sure you’re eating enough magnesium-rich foods on a regular basis, including:  

• Spinach 

• Chard 

• Pumpkin seeds  

• Almonds  

• Avocado  

• Dark chocolate  

• Bananas  

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health. 

9. Manganese

Manganese is an important trace mineral for human health. It acts as a cofactor, helping many enzymes carry out their functions in the body. 

Manganese has been shown to increase the synthesis of acetylcholine (30).  

Hazelnuts and macadamia nuts contain high levels of manganese, while leafy green vegetables, tea, chocolate and some fruits contain moderate levels. These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health. 

However, it’s important to note that you shouldn’t consume too much manganese.  

In excess, manganese is neurotoxic and can lead to manganism, a neurodegenerative disorder that causes dopaminergic neuronal death and symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease.  

So I don’t recommend supplementing with very large doses of manganese.  

The small amount of manganese in Optimal Antiox is fine though.

10. Curcumin

Curcumin is the most heavily researched compound within turmeric, the spice that gives curry its yellow colour.  

It’s one of my favourite natural compounds for the brain. 

One reason is becayse the curcuminoids in turmeric significantly inhibit the breakdown of acetylcholine, increasing levels in the brain. As a result, turmeric can improve memory and help treat Alzheimer's disease (31).  

Curcumin has also been shown to enhance the activity of acetylcholine in the brain (32-33).  

Curcumin is included in the Optimal Energy supplement. 

Since curcumin is a fat soluble, take it with a fatty meal. 

11. Coffee

Coffee and caffeine are excellent for brain health.  

There is lots of research showing they are very healthy and can lower the risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases.  

One reason is because they can help optimize acetylcholine levels.  

Research shows that caffeine enhances the release of acetylcholine and increases acetylcholine levels in the brain, particularly in the hippocampus, which is the “memory center” of the brain (17-18).  

I recently cut out coffee completely but I used to drink this high-quality coffee. 

You can also just take pure caffeine tablets if you want.

Coffee and caffeine can disrupt sleep though, so make sure you don’t drink it in the evening close to bed.  

Some people like me are really sensitive and have to stop drinking it very early in the day so that it doesn’t disrupt their sleep. I would have my last cup sometime between 10 in the morning and noon. Any later than that and it disrupted my sleep. 

It's also a good idea to try to consume the whole coffee fruit, instead of just coffee or pure caffeine.  

Traditionally, the coffee bean is extracted from the coffee fruit for roasting. And the surrounding fruit is discarded.  

But that’s a problem because the coffee fruit contains several healthy compounds not found in coffee beans themselves.  

And researchers have found that consuming whole coffee fruit concentrate can significantly enhance cognitive functioning.  

That’s why I included coffee fruit in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

12. Eggs

Eggs are one of the richest food sources of choline. 

And research shows that eating eggs can lead to a significant increase in choline levels in the blood and in the brain (19-20).  

I eat at least 3 eggs every day. They are full of nutrients and excellent for brain health. You should try to find pastured eggs from a local farmer in your area.  

Eggs are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health. 

13. Beef Liver

Beef liver is another very rich source of choline. 

And research shows that eating liver can lead to a significant increase in choline levels in the blood and in the brain (19-20). 

Beef liver is one of my three top foods I recommend eating for optimal brain health. 

It’s included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health. 

I don’t like the taste of cooked liver, so I take desiccated beef liver capsules instead.  

14. Uridine

Uridine is a natural compound commonly found in beer. 

I definitely don’t recommend drinking beer, but supplementing with pure uridine can protect the brain, enhance cognition, and increase mood and motivation. 

Researchers have found that supplementing with uridine increases acetylcholine concentrations in the brain (3).  

It’s important to note that uridine in food is not bioavailable, and no food has been shown to increase blood levels of uridine (74).  

So you’ll need to supplement with it. 

Uridine is synergistic with omega-3 fatty acids and choline, meaning they all work better when you take them together.  

15. Wild Blueberries

If you want to improve your cognitive performance, eating lots of fruits and vegetables is definitely something you’ll want to do regularly.  

Wild blueberries are particularly potent because of they are so rich in polyphenols. 

The polyphenols in wild blueberries have been shown to significantly improve learning and memory by increasing acetylcholine levels in the brain (21-22).  

If you eat blueberries, make sure they are wild because they are richer in polyphenols.  

I buy wild blueberries every time I go grocery shopping. 

They are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health.  

I try to eat one cup of them every day to support my brain health.  

Alternatively, you can take a blueberry extract.

In fact, most researchers use a concentrated blueberry extract instead of actual blueberries when they study the beneficial health effects of blueberries. 

It’s actually less expensive in the long run to take an extract than eat blueberries every day, but I just prefer to eat actual blueberries. It’s more enjoyable.  

You can also drink blueberry juice if you want. There is research showing that blueberry juice improves cognitive function in the elderly. 

Besides increasing acetylcholine, wild blueberries also improve brain health by increasing BDNF and improving brain blood flow. 

16. Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3s fatty acids are the highest quality fats for the brain and increasing your intake of them is one of the most impactful actions you can take to promote the normal functioning of your brain and nervous system.  

They have been shown in many studies to significantly reduce brain inflammation; improve memory, mood and cognition; and protect against mild cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer's disease. 

Research also shows that omega-3 fatty acids increase acetylcholine levels in the brain (34-35).  

It’s important to consume enough omega-3 fatty acids because they are essential fats that your body cannot produce itself.  

Omega-3 fatty acids are found primarily in cold water fish, including:  

• Salmon  

• Black cod  

• Sablefish  

• Sardines  

• Herring  

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health. 

Unfortunately, most people don't consume enough omega-3 fatty acids through their diet.  

That’s why I recommend supplementing with krill oil, a special kind of fish oil that contains the essential omega-3 fatty acids.  

The Best Herbal Supplements to Increase Acetylcholine in the Brain

There are many different herbs and natural plant compounds that can increase acetylcholine levels.

They usually work by inhibiting acetylcholine esterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine in the brain.

17. Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo Biloba is a plant that has been used in China for thousands of years to treat a number of health problems.  

It’s one of the top-selling natural supplements in the world, and it’s even a prescription herb in Germany.  

Ginkgo Biloba extract is most commonly used to improve brain health because it increases brain blood flow and improves memory, mood, mental energy, and attention in both healthy and unhealthy individuals. 

Ginkgo biloba extract has been shown to enhance cognition by increasing acetylcholine levels in the prefrontal cortex of the brain (42, 45).  

In one study, it significantly increased acetylcholine in the hippocampus, which is the area of the brain involved in memory (41). 

Another study found that it also inhibits acetylcholine esterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine. As a result, researchers think it could be used to treat dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (43-44).  

Ginkgo Biloba is included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

18. Ginseng

Researchers have found that several types of ginseng significantly reduce the breakdown of acetylcholine (52).  

They also increase the synthesis of acetylcholine in the brain, which can reverse memory loss (53).  

The best form of ginseng that I have personally benefited the most from is American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius).  

I find that it improves my memory and clears brain fog very quickly.  

Research shows that American Ginseng enhances brain function by stimulating the production and release of acetylcholine in the brain (54-55).  

One study found it can recover the cognitive function by enhancing acetylcholine levels (56).  

19. Huperzine A

Huperzine A is a natural compound found in the Chinese herb Huperzia serrata.  

It has neuroprotective effects, and significantly improves cognition in animals and humans (40).  

It's been shown to block acetylcholine esterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine (39).  

As a result, it can increase acetylcholine levels in the brain, improving learning and memory (36).  

A systematic review concluded it can help reduce cognitive decline and slow down the development of neurodegenerative disorders (38-39).  

And in China, it’s approved and prescribed to treat Alzheimer’s disease (37).  

20. Bacopa

Bacopa monnieri is a medicinal herb that enhances cognition.  

It’s most commonly used to improve memory and reduce symptoms of dementia (48).  

Research shows that bacopa blocks the breakdown of acetylcholine and increases the production of acetylcholine (46, 49). 

One study found that it can even reverse the memory loss caused by anti-cholinergic drugs (47).  

Other studies show that it significantly improves learning and memory by significantly reducing the breakdown of acetylcholine (50-51).  

Besides improving memory and cognition, I have found bacopa very relaxing and good at reducing anxiety and stress. 

So it’s a good option if you’re looking for something to increase acetylcholine and relieve anxiety at the same time.  

21. Gotu Kola

Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) is a traditional herb with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.  

It’s been used for centuries in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine to enhance cognition.  

Studies show that it enhances learning and memory by inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine in the brain (58-60).  

It’s even been shown to reduce the formation of amyloid plaques, which occurs in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease (57).  

It's important to point out that the Gotu Kola plant soaks up heavy metals from the soil. So you need to find a high-quality, organic source that doesn’t contain heavy metals.  

22. Galantamine

Galantamine is an alkaloid isolated from the plant Galanthus woronowii. 

It’s commonly used to treat mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease because it can improve memory, cognitive performance, activities of daily living and behavioral symptoms (62, 64).  

Research shows that it maintains acetylcholine levels by slowing down the breakdown of acetylcholine in the brain (61).  

It also stimulates acetylcholine activity throughout the entire brain (63).  

23. Rhodiola

Rhodiola, also known as golden root or arctic root, is a Traditional Chinese and Scandinavian herb.  

It’s one of the most popular adaptogens used to increase physical and mental stamina. 

Rhodiola has been shown to improve learning and memory by reducing the breakdown of acetylcholine (65-67).  

As a result, researchers think it is a good candidate for the treatment of dementia and other memory disturbances (65).  

I personally take this rhodiola supplement. I don't take it every day, only when I need an extra boost in brain function and cognitive energy. It’s especially useful after stressful periods of pushing myself too hard. It helps me recover faster.  

Rhodiola also boosts dopamine levels and induces autophagy in the brain.  

Be sure to check out this post to learn more about the benefits of rhodiola. 

24. Rosemary

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a medicinal plant rich in polyphenols and flavonoids. 

It has antidepressant effects by boosting cholinergic activity in brain cells (68).  

It also significantly reduces the breakdown of acetylcholine (69).  

Researchers found that simply inhaling rosemary essential oil can improve cognitive performance by preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine (70).  

Important Hormones That Increase Acetylcholine in the Brain

Hormones levels can also significantly impact your acetylcholine levels. Below are three main hormones that you should optimize.

25. Estrogen

Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone and responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system. 

Increasing estrogen levels has been shown to significantly increase the release of acetylcholine in the frontal cortex of the brain (71).  

I recommend both men and women get their hormone levels checked regularly, and then optimize them if they want to optimize brain function and feel their best.  

You can check your estrogen levels here. 

26. Insulin

Insulin is a hormone that significantly affects brain function.  

Researchers have found that it passes the blood-brain barrier and acts on insulin receptors directly within the brain.  

Unfortunately, many people today develop insulin resistance within the brain.  

When this happens, there is a reduction in cognitive function.  

So in a new therapeutic approach, commercially-available insulin (Novalin R) is being prepared and added to nasal spray bottles, and sprayed and inhaled through the nose to support the brain and mental health. 

Intranasal insulin has been reported to significantly enhance memory, increase mental energy and reduce brain fog. 

One possible way it does this is by increasing acetylcholine levels in the brain.  

Research shows that insulin improves memory by enhancing cholinergic function and inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine in the brain (72). 

Intranasal insulin also improves brain blood flow and increases the formation of new synapses in the brain. 

If you’re interested in learning more about intranasal insulin, I previously wrote a full article about it. You can read that here. 

27. Melatonin

Melatonin is a hormone released by your pineal gland, a small gland in your brain. You can also take it as a supplement. 

It helps control your circadian rhythm, and adequate levels of melatonin are necessary to fall asleep quickly and sleep deeply throughout the night. 

Research shows that melatonin improves memory by enhancing cholinergic function and inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine (73). 

This sleep supplement, which contains magnesium and a number of other natural compounds that I’ve used over the years to promote the production of melatonin.

But I work with my clients so that they can naturally produce more melatonin and maximize the quality of their sleep without so many supplements. We have free online workshop that talks about how you can work with us. You can register for the workshop here.

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Live Optimally,

Jordan Fallis

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References: 

(1) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16942753 

(2) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18289004 

(3) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17184749 

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(9) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23387341 

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(11) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19685700 

(12) https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1533210110392944 

(13) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1854155/ 

(14) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2215852 

(15) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2215852 

(16) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2215852 

(17) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2003276 

(18) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7752065 

(19) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK209058/ 

(20) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782876/ 

(21) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166432808006232 

(22) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19056430 

(23) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16243721 

(24) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0753332216301536 

(25) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11245669 

(26) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22366543 

(27) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16572044 

(28) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1393682/pdf/jphysiol01485-0019.pdf 

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(31) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18930076 

(32) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29341902 

(33) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29339457 

(34) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12221201 

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(37) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4003111/ 

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22 Proven Ways to Increase Brain Blood Flow

Without a doubt, healthy blood flow is absolutely essential for optimal brain function and mental health.

Brain blood flow, or cerebral blood flow, refers to the blood supply that reaches your brain during a given period of time. 

Your brain needs almost 20% of the blood supply provided by each heartbeat.

A steady flow of blood brings oxygen, glucose and nutrients to the brain, and carries carbon dioxide, lactic acid, and other metabolic waste products away from the brain.

But when blood flow to the brain is hindered, cognitive problems can arise.

Poor brain blood flow and circulation are linked to a number of brain and mental illnesses, including:

• Cognitive dysfunction and brain fog (131-132)

• Chronic fatigue syndrome (140)

• Dementia (133)

• Parkinson’s Disease (134)

• Alzheimer’s disease (135, 143)

• Depression (136)

• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (137-139)

• Anxiety (139)

• Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (139)

• Panic disorder (139)

• Agoraphobia (139)

• Traumatic brain injury (141-142)

• Lyme disease (144)

“Increasing blood flow to the brain might be an effective therapeutic approach to prevent or treat Alzheimer’s.”

— Dr. Robert Vassar

Some of the main causes of poor brain blood flow include abnormal blood pressure, poor circulation, low thyroid, infections, and stress (126-130). 

Besides addressing these major causes, there are several ways to directly increase the amount of oxygen-rich blood that flows to your brain.

Researchers use neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), to measure cerebral blood flow.

And they have found that the following 22 methods increase brain blood flow and circulation in humans. 

After suffering multiple concussions, I had severe depression and brain fog. So I had no choice but to focus on optimizing brain blood flow and circulation.

Many of these methods have been helpful to me over the years.

If you want to naturally increase blood flow to your brain, continue reading to learn more.

1. Exercise

Exercise is one of the best and most accessible ways to increase brain blood flow and circulation. 

Research shows that moderate exercise increases blood flow to the brain by as much as 15% (1). 

And you don’t even need to work out intensely to increase blood flow to your brain.

Simply walking for 30 minutes at a brisk pace, three or four times each week, is good enough. That will get more blood and oxygen to your brain and you’ll reap the benefits (2). 

In fact, the foot’s impact on the ground while walking sends pressure waves through the arteries, which sends more blood and oxygen to the brain (3). 

“There are many studies that suggest that exercise improves brain function in older adults, but we don’t know exactly why the brain improves. Our study indicates it might be tied to an improvement in the supply of blood flow to the brain.”

— Dr. Rong Zhang

Exercise has also been shown to protect against cognitive decline and dementia, promote neurogenesis, help reverse brain damage, and promote the regeneration of myelin.

So not surprisingly, exercise is recommended by many experts and it’s often their number one piece of advice for optimal brain health.

My usual advice is to find a sport or exercise routine that you enjoy, so that you’ll stick with it consistently.

2. Cold Exposure

Exposing yourself to cold temperatures can also help you get more blood flowing to your brain. 

Research shows that putting your hand in ice water for one minute can significantly increase the speed of blood flow to the brain (6-8). 

Researchers have also found that cooling the skin during upright tilting maintains the speed of blood flow to the brain (5). 

Animal studies also show that cold exposure significantly increases cerebral blood flow (4). 

I take a cold shower every day, and often go outside with minimal clothing in the winter to increase my blood flow and circulation. 

You don’t have to do that right away though. You can take it one baby step at a time.

You can start out by finishing your next shower with just 30 seconds of cold water.

See how you feel, and then work your way up to longer.

It can be a bit painful, but you get used to it and the beneficial effects are worth it.

Another way to ease yourself into it is by sticking your face, hand or foot in ice cold water.

Cold exposure also stimulates the vagus nerve and supports the endocannabinoid system. 

3. Sunlight

Research also shows that light stimulates brain blood flow and circulation.

Positron emission technology (PET) measures blood flow to specific areas of the brain.

In one study, researchers used PET scans to monitor cerebral blood flow in patients with season affective disorder (SAD) – before and after light therapy. 

Before light therapy, the scans show that patients had reduced blood flow to the cerebral cortex, the “executive” part of the brain.

But after just a few days of light therapy, this part of the brain started to light up, indicating greater activity and increased blood flow (9).

But this isn’t just seen in depressed individuals.

Another study found that 10 minutes of light exposure can increase brain blood flow in healthy people (10). 

Light therapy even increases brain blood flow in pre-term infants (11). 

I personally get sunlight every day during the spring and summer months to support my brain health. It’s a simple way for me to increase blood flow to my brain every day.

Researchers have also found a positive correlation between Vitamin D levels and brain blood flow (94).

So I take a Vitamin D3 supplement during the winter months when there isn't enough sun.

It's important to test and monitor your Vitamin D levels before and after supplementing with it.

4. Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo Biloba is a plant that has been used for thousands of years to treat a number of health problems.

Today, it’s one of the most popular herbal supplements in the world.

Doctors even prescribe it in Germany!

It’s most commonly used to improve brain health.

Researchers have found that it increases cognitive function, and improves memory and attention in both healthy and unhealthy individuals. It even reduces the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease (15). 

These positive effects are mainly because it significantly increases blood flow to the brain and increases blood circulation in the brain (12-14). 

Gingko biloba is included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

5. Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT)

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT), or photobiomodulation, is a treatment that uses red and infrared light to support brain function.

The treatment uses either low-power lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that emit red and infrared light.

The red and infrared light is applied to the brain, and it stimulates brain cells, helping them helping them function better.

Most doctors are clueless about LLLT; but not every doctor. 

Dr. Norman Doidge, a physician who teaches at the University of Toronto here in Canada, discusses the amazing effects of LLLT in his book The Brain’s Way of Healing.

One way LLLT can help the brain is by increasing brain blood flow and circulation. 

One study found that applying near infrared light to the forehead can help treat depression and anxiety (without side effects) by increasing frontal regional cerebral blood flow (49).

Another study saw improvement in brain blood flow in healthy elderly women (50). 

Animal research has also found that light can be used to locally increase brain blood circulation (93). 

I previously wrote about my experience with low-level laser therapy here.

I have used the Optimal 1000 Brain Photobiomodulation Therapy Light (Combo Red/NIR) and shine the red and infrared light directly on my forehead. It’s a simple way for me to quickly and naturally increase blood flow to the brain.

When I’m travelling and away from home, I take this smaller and more convenient device with me and shine it on my forehead.

I’ve also used the Vielight Neuro Duo, which is a transcranial-intranasal headset with 810 nm of near infrared light. It penetrates deeper into brain tissue and is absorbed better by the central nervous system. If you decide to try a Vielight device, you can use the coupon code JORDANFALLIS for a 10% discount

LLLT can also support thyroid function and mitochondria function and help with brain fog. 

6. Vinpocetine

Vinpocetine is a compound from the Periwinkle plant. 

It’s commonly used in Europe to treat cognitive decline, memory impairments, stroke recovery, and epilepsy.

Researchers have found that it increases brain blood flow in both healthy people and stroke victims.

The increase in brain blood flow leads to increased brain oxygen levels and energy production, reduced brain inflammation, and improved reaction time (16-25). 

I took a vinpocetine supplement many years ago after my last concussion to increase blood flow to the brain and speed up my recovery. But I no longer need to take it.

7. Meditation

Meditation is my favourite relaxation technique and it's linked to increased blood flow in the brain.

In one study, 14 people with memory problems followed a simple 8-week meditation program. And researchers found a significant increase in blood flow to the prefrontal cortex (31). 

Logical memory and verbal fluency also improved after training (31). 

Another study showed that just five days of meditation (30 minutes each day) significantly enhanced brain blood flow (32). 

I have used the Muse headband to meditate. It gives you real-time feedback while you meditate. That way, you know how well you are meditating. It makes meditating much more enjoyable.

I previously wrote about it here, and you can get it through the Muse website.

8. Resveratrol

Resveratrol is a beneficial antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound.

Many people know that it’s found in grapes, red wine, raspberries and dark chocolate.

Resveratrol is known to help prevent the development of neurodegenerative diseases.

And researchers are starting to understand why.

Resveratrol can increase BDNF, help restore the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, and support your mitochondria.

But it can also help you quickly get more blood and oxygen flowing to your brain. 

In one study, after taking either 250 or 500 milligrams of resveratrol, study participants experienced a dose-dependent increase in brain blood flow (26). 

Even just 75 mg has been shown to increase brain circulation and cognition (27, 29). 

And a recent study found that chronic resveratrol supplementation increases brain blood circulation in post-menopausal women, improving their cognition and mood (28, 30). 

Resveratrol is included in this supplement.

9. Dark Chocolate

Most people love chocolate, and your brain loves it too. 

Dark chocolate contains cocoa, which is known to improve blood flow. 

It's one of my favourite foods, and it’s included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health.

Research suggests that the flavonoids found in cocoa beans increase blood flow to key areas of the brain for two to three hours after eating them. And this leads to an improvement in cognitive performance and general alertness (33, 35). 

“Certain food components like cocoa flavanols may be beneficial in increasing brain blood flow and enhancing brain function among older adults or for others in situations where they may be cognitively impaired, such as fatigue or sleep deprivation.”

— Dr. Ian A. Macdonald, PhD, from the University of Nottingham Medical School in the United Kingdom

One study found that flavanol-rich cocoa significant increases the speed of brain blood flow in healthy elderly people (34). 

Another study found that drinking two cups of hot chocolate a day for 30 days was linked to improved blood flow to the brain and better memory (36). 

Dark chocolate also increases BDNF and reduces cortisol.

It’s important to choose a type of dark chocolate with at least 70 percent cocoa.

10. Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3s fatty acids are the highest quality fats for the brain.

They are essential, meaning your body cannot create them and you have to get them from food or supplements.

Making sure you get more omega-3s is one of the most important actions you can take to support your brain and nervous system.

Many studies show that they significantly reduce brain inflammation; improve memory, mood and cognition; and protect against mild cognitive impairment, dementia and Alzheimer's disease.

They also naturally increase brain blood flow and circulation. 

Research shows that higher omega-3 levels are significantly correlated with higher regional cerebral blood flow (37). 

“This is very important research because it shows a correlation between lower omega-3 fatty acid levels and reduced brain blood flow to regions important for learning, memory, depression and dementia.”

— Dr. Daniel G. Amen, MD, Amen Clinics

And one study found that omega-3 supplementation, in comparison with placebo, significantly increased brain blood flow (38). 

Omega-3 fatty acids are found in cold water fish such as salmon, black cod, sablefish, sardines and herring.

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health.

Unfortunately, most people don't consume enough of these foods.

So supplementing with krill oil should be considered.

Krill oil is a special kind of fish oil that readily crosses the blood-brain barrier. I’ve tried tons of fish oil supplements, and I recommend krill oil over all the others.

11. Acupuncture

Acupuncture is an alternative treatment that has been shown to increase brain blood flow and circulation.

In a randomized controlled trial, 17 post-stroke patients did acupuncture or sham acupuncture for 20 minutes.

The researchers found that the speed of blood flow to both hemispheres of the brain significantly increased during and after acupuncture treatment (39, 42). 

Research has also shown that acupuncture can significantly improve cerebral blood flow and circulation in animals (40-41, 43). 

I’m a really big fan of auricular acupuncture, which is when the needles are inserted into ear.

In my experience, ear acupuncture is more effective than regular acupuncture. I’m not sure why. I’ve just personally noticed more benefits from ear acupuncture. 

I’d recommend trying to find an acupuncturist in your area who provides ear acupuncture.

Ear acupuncture really helped me the first time I weened off antidepressants. I was surprised.

At the end of each appointment, my practitioner would secure small black seeds on my ear. 

I have also used an acupuncture mat at home to relax before bed.

Acupuncture also stimulates the vagus nerve. 

12. Chewing Gum

Research reveals that chewing increases brain blood flow (44). 

As a result, chewing can improve cognitive performance and brain function, including working and spatial memory. It also increases the level of arousal and alertness during a cognitive task (45). 

If you chew gum, make sure it’s aspartame-free.

Chewing gum also reduces cortisol. 

13. Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR) 

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) is an acetylated form of the amino acid carnitine. 

It’s known to help reverse neurological decline by increasing levels of acetylcholine in the brain.

It’s often used as a brain booster by people of all ages because it support brain cells and increases alertness.

It’s also been shown to be very effective at alleviating chronic fatigue and improving mood by supporting mitochondrial function.

Considering all of this, it’s not too surprising that researchers have also found that it can enhance brain blood flow in people who have had a stroke (46-47). 

ALCAR is included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of ALCAR.

14. Nitrates

Nitrates are both naturally-occurring compounds found in soil and plants.

High levels of nitrates are found in foods such as beets, celery, cabbage, spinach, and other leafy green vegetables.

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health.

Research shows that a nitrate-rich diet can increase blood flow to the frontal lobe of the brain, improving cognitive function and protecting against cognitive decline (51-52). 

Beet juice is a particularly rich source of nitrates, and studies have found that it can help widen blood vessels and increase oxygen and blood flow to the brain (53-54, 56). 

A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial even found that beet juice can improve cognitive performance by increasing brain blood flow (55). 

“There have been several very high-profile studies showing that drinking beet juice can lower blood pressure, but we wanted to show that drinking beet juice also increases perfusion, or blood flow, to the brain. There are areas in the brain that become poorly perfused as you age, and that’s believed to be associated with dementia and poor cognition.”

— Dr. Daniel Kim-Shapiro, PhD

I don’t really enjoy the taste, but every so often, I’ll drink beet juice during cognitively-demanding tasks. 

15. Drink Less Coffee (Or Take Theanine)

Coffee is generally excellent for brain health. There is a lot of research showing it is very healthy and can be protective against dementia.

However, studies also show that if you want to get more blood flowing to your brain and within you brain, you’re better off avoiding or limiting caffeine. 

Researchers have found that caffeine significantly reduces brain blood flow by 20 to 30% depending on the study and dosage (74-77). 

The good news is that taking the amino acid theanine can reduce the negative brain blood flow effects of caffeine (78-79). 

That’s why I often take a theanine supplement when I drink coffee.

Theanine is included in this anti-anxiety supplement.

I also often take breaks from drinking coffee to normalize brain blood flow and circulation. 

Taking the herb rhodiola can make quitting caffeine much easier because it helps reduce withdrawal symptoms.

Lastly, you could also try supplementing with the whole coffee fruit, instead of just drinking coffee.

The coffee bean is usually separated from the coffee fruit for roasting. When this happens, the surrounding coffee fruit is then thrown away. 

That’s a problem because the coffee fruit contains several healthy compounds not found in coffee beans themselves.

In fact, scientists have discovered that ingesting coffee fruit concentrate significantly increases brain function. 

That’s why coffee fruit concentrate is included in Optimal Brain.

16. Piracetam

Piracetam is a “nootropic”, which means it’s a supplement that enhances cognition.

It provides a mild boost in brain function, and it’s regularly used in Europe, Asia and South America to treat cognitive impairment. 

A meta-analysis found that piracetam improves general cognition when supplemented by people in a state of cognitive decline (84). 

Research also shows that it can increase brain blood flow in humans and animals (85-91). 

I used to take piracetam every day but I don’t need it at all anymore.

Phenylpiracetam is an advanced version of piracetam and I found it to be even better because it improves mood and reduces anxiety. It’s also been shown to reverse the depressant effects of benzodiazepines (81-83).

Both piracetam and phenylpiracetam work best if you take them with a source of choline, such as CDP-Choline and Alpha GPC (80). 

17. Ketogenic Dieting

A ketogenic diet is a very low-carbohydrate diet.

To follow the diet correctly, you need to eat less than 50 grams of carbohydrates per day.

This means you need to avoid all carbohydrate-rich foods, including grains, sugar, and even potatoes, legumes and fruit.

When you restrict carbs this much, your body enters ketosis, a metabolic state in which your body and brain run on fatty acids and “ketones” instead of glucose.

Researchers have found that ketones are a therapeutic option in traumatic brain injury because they can increase brain blood flow by 39% (100). 

Studies have also shown that ketones increase cerebral blood flow by 65% in animals (103-104). 

Caloric restriction also increases ketones, which preserves cerebral blood flow in aging rats (102). 

I follow a ketogenic diet every so often, but not for long stretches of time due to hormone problems that can result from it.

18. Citicoline

Citicoline (also known as CDP-Choline) is one of the most bioavailable forms of choline.

You need to get choline from food. But most people don’t get enough because very few foods in the Western diet contain it.

That’s why supplementation is often necessary.

Citicoline is a supplemental form of choline that has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects.

It enhances the synthesis of acetylcholine and dopamine (two neurotransmitters that are critical for optimal brain function) and increases the number of acetylcholine and dopamine receptors in your brain (105-110). 

It’s also been shown to improve cognitive function by increasing the rate of brain blood flow (114-116). 

A double-blind placebo-controlled study concluded that Citicoline improves cognitive performance in patients with Alzheimer’s disease by increasing brain blood flow (113). 

I found that citicoline improved my focus and mental energy. It's included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

You can also find some choline in foods such as beef liver and egg yolks. These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health.

But the effects of Citicoline are much more noticeable and immediate because it quickly passes the blood-brain barrier and supports your brain.  

Citicoline also promotes the regeneration of myelin, supports the blood-brain barrier, and helps reverse brain damage.

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of Citicoline.

19. Blueberry Juice

Drinking blueberry juice improves cognitive function in the elderly, according to research published (123-125). 

One way it improved brain health was by increasing oxygen levels and increasing blood flow to the brain.

The participants had improvements in working memory while doing cognitive testing.

“In this study we have shown that with just 12 weeks of consuming 30ml of concentrated blueberry juice every day, brain blood flow, brain activation and some aspects of working memory were improved in this group of healthy older adults.”

— Dr. Joanna Bowtell

The amount of juice in the study was equivalent to 230g of blueberries.

The researchers believe that the flavonoids in blueberries were responsible for the positive effects.  

20. Pyrroloquinoline Quinone (PQQ)

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a vitamin-like enzyme and potent antioxidant found in plant foods that can improve cognitive function.

Researchers have found that supplementing with PQQ can increase blood flow to the prefrontal cortex (117-118). 

One study found that PQQ can prevent the reduction of brain function in elderly people, especially in attention and working memory, by increasing brain blood flow (119). 

21. Intranasal Insulin

Insulin is one of the hormones that significantly affects brain function.

It's been shown to pass the blood-brain barrier and act on insulin receptors directly within the brain.

In a new therapeutic approach, commercially-available insulin (Novalin R) is prepared and added to nasal spray bottles, and sprayed and inhaled through the nose to support brain and mental health.

Intranasal insulin has been reported to significantly enhance memory, increase mental energy, reduce brain fog, improve mood, and lower anxiety and stress levels.

One possible mechanism is by increasing brain blood flow and circulation.

Research shows that intranasal insulin increases regional cerebral blood flow in the insular cortex (120, 122). 

In a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, intranasal insulin improved brain blood flow in older adults (121).

If you’re interested in learning more, I previously wrote a full article about intranasal insulin.

22. Music

I previously wrote about how music naturally reduces cortisol, helps treat OCD, and increases dopamine and oxytocin. 

But now it looks like it also increases blood flow to the brain.

Researchers found that musical training or listening to music increases blood flow to the brain (145-146).

It’s even more effective when you’re learning or listening to music that you really enjoy.

23. BONUS: Other Promising Nutrients and Herbs

Researchers have found that the following compounds can increase cerebral blood flow in animals. But I couldn’t find any research showing that it will do the same in humans. However, they are worth experimenting with as many of them have been effective at supporting my brain and mental health over the years.

• Arginine (57-60)

• Vitamin E (61-64)

• Bacopa (65-66) – also improves memory

• Curcumin (67-68)

• Ginseng (69-70)

• Citrulline (71-72)

• Icariin (73) – also promotes neurogenesis

• Forskolin (95) – also helps with brain fog

• S-adenosyl-L-methionine (96)

• Quercetin (97-98)

• Taurine (99) – also lowers homocysteine

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Live Optimally,

Jordan Fallis

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The 36 Best Natural Ways to Increase Dopamine Levels in the Brain

Dopamine makes you happier, smarter, more productive, more creative, more focused, and more social.

Who doesn't want that? 

There are many ways to increase dopamine naturally.

But what are the VERY BEST ways to do it?

This article gives you the answer. 

It includes the 36 very best ways to increase dopamine levels in your brain.

It starts off with my 10 personal favourites.

And then offers 26 other great options. 

Not only do they work, but many of them work very quickly.

Read on to learn more. 

What Is Dopamine and What Does It Do in the Brain?

“Dopamine may be the secret to what makes us human – meaning awfully bright, able to plan ahead, and resist impulses when necessary.”

— Dr. Emily Deans

Dopamine influences almost every aspect of your life.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, meaning it’s a chemical messenger released by neurons (nerve cells) to “communicate” with other neurons (236). 

Like all neurotransmitters, dopamine shuttles between cells and binds to receptors.

In the media and popular culture, dopamine is often promoted as the main pleasure neurotransmitter.   

But dopamine actually appears to increase desire and motivation more than pleasure.

In fact, it’s often called the “motivation molecule”. 

The brain includes several dopamine pathways, and they play a key role in reward, motivation, memory and attention (233-235). 

So not surprisingly, dopamine significantly impacts human behaviour.

And research shows that naturally increasing dopamine levels can lead to numerous benefits, including:

• Increased enthusiasm, motivation and drive to be productive, accomplish tasks and reach goals (165-179)

• Reduced drug addiction and dependence (162-164)

• Improved cognition function, learning, long-term memory and working memory (180-185)

• Increased focus and concentration (186-190)

• Increased creativity, both verbal and visual creativity (191-197)

• Improved mood (198-200)

• Reduced fear and improved confidence (201-204)

• Increased social bonding and stronger relationships (oxytocin plays a role too) (205-208)

• Increased tolerance to pain (209-211)

Conditions and Symptoms Associated with Low Levels of Dopamine in the Brain

“Low levels of dopamine make people less likely to work for things.”

— Dr. John Salamone

Research shows that low dopamine levels are associated with a number of brain and mental health conditions and symptoms, including:

• Addiction (216-217)

• Depression, Apathy and Feelings of Hopelessness (225-226)

• Parkinson’s Disease (213-215, 228)

• Restless Leg Syndrome (229-230)

• Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (218-220)

• Social Anxiety (212)

• Cognitive Aging and Poor Memory (221)

• Alzheimer's Disease and Cognitive Decline (222)

• Bulimia (223)

• Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (224)

• Toxic Mold Illness (227)

• Traumatic Brain Injury (231-232)

• Brain Fog

• Moodiness and Irritability

• Procrastination

Perhaps you struggle with one of these conditions or symptoms. 

The good news is that you’re not powerless.

You can naturally increase your dopamine levels and recapture your zest for life.

All you need to do is implement some of the natural strategies below.   

They can significantly improve your motivation, focus and mood.

They have helped me, and they can help you too. 

Let’s jump into them.

My Top 10 Favourite Ways to Naturally Increase Dopamine Levels in the Brain

1. Sunlight and Vitamin D

Exposing yourself to sunshine is one of the best natural ways to increase dopamine levels in your brain. 

And it’s my personal favourite.

Research shows that sunlight increases dopamine release (4-5).

I personally get sunlight every single day during the spring and summer months to increase dopamine. 

It’s important to get the sunlight in your eyes to trigger the release of dopamine. 

So make sure you don’t wear contacts, glasses or sunglasses when you go outside. This way, you’ll get a bigger dopamine boost. 

It’s especially important to do this in the morning because it sets your circadian rhythm (3). 

During the winter months, when there isn't enough sun, I use a Vitamin D sunlamp.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that your skin synthesizes when exposed to the sun.

But most people still don’t get enough Vitamin D from the sun.

Researchers believe that 50% of people are at risk of Vitamin D deficiency (6).

Having a deficiency in Vitamin D leads to lower dopamine levels, but treatment with Vitamin D3 enhances dopamine release (1-2). 

So at the very least, you should take a Vitamin D supplement if you’re deficient. I take some Vitamin D3 in supplement form, depending on my levels.

It's important to test and monitor your Vitamin D levels before and after supplementing with it.

2. Vagus Nerve Stimulation

The vagus nerve is the longest cranial nerve in your body and part of your parasympathetic “rest and digest” nervous system.

Research shows that chronic impairment of vagus nerve function leads to the inhibition of dopamine in the brain (7). 

But vagus nerve stimulation reverses a dysregulated dopamine system (8).

Read this article for 13 ways to stimulate your vagus nerve. 

Deep breathing with the EmWave2 device is my favourite way. 

3. Low-Level Laser Therapy

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT), or photobiomodulation, is a treatment that can improve your brain function and support your dopamine levels.

LLLT involves the use of low-power lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs) that emit red and infrared light.

You can shine this light on your head, it penetrates the skull and stimulates your brain cells.

This helps your brain function much better.

Dr. Norman Doidge, a psychiatrist and researcher who teaches at the University of Toronto, discusses the amazing effects of LLLT in his book The Brain’s Way of Healing.

Research shows that LLLT significantly increases the secretion of dopamine in the brain (12).

Several studies also show that LLLT is neuroprotective and protects dopaminergic brain cells from degeneration (13-21).

Because of this, researchers say LLLT is a promising therapeutic strategy for dopamine-related diseases such as Parkinson’s disease (12).

I previously wrote about my experience with low-level laser therapy here.

I use this device and shine the red and infrared light on my forehead for 5 minutes every day. I also shine it on other parts of my head and on my entire body, including on my thyroid, thymus gland and gut. I experience incredible benefits from doing this.

When I’m travelling, I take this smaller and more convenient device with me and shine it on my forehead.

I’ve also been using the Vielight Neuro Duo, which is a transcranial-intranasal headset with 810 nm of near infrared light. It penetrates deeper into brain tissue and is absorbed better by the central nervous system. If you decide to try a Vielight device, you can use the coupon code JORDANFALLIS for a 10% discount

You can learn about how I use these devices in my LLLT article. I highly recommend reading it if you want to try this.

4. Rhodiola

Rhodiola is one of the most popular herbs in the world used to increase physical and mental performance.

It’s a Traditional Chinese and Scandinavian herb, and it’s also sometimes called golden root or arctic root.

I previously wrote about rhodiola here. 

Researchers have found that rhodiola stimulates dopamine receptors and inhibits the enzymes that break down dopamine in the brain (22). 

It also increases the amount of dopamine precursors that can pass the blood brain barrier (23). 

I take a rhodiola supplement. But I don't take it every day, only when I want to boost my energy and cognitive function.

5. Coffee

Drinking coffee is another great way to boost dopamine levels.

Research shows that caffeine increases the release of dopamine in the brain (26-27). 

Other studies have found that it also enhances dopamine signaling and increases dopamine receptors (24-25). 

I usually drink one cup of coffee most mornings. I also sometimes take pure caffeine tablets before a workout.

Sometimes people find that coffee makes them feel terrible and jittery.

This might be due to the quality of the coffee. 

I find that low-quality, non-organic coffee makes me feel terrible.

In fact, cheap coffee feels like it lowers my dopamine.

Most people can tolerate regular coffee just fine.

But if it makes you feel sick, consider trying a higher-quality coffee, which I can tolerate just fine, or simply take pure caffeine, and see how you feel. You may feel better than if you consumed low-quality coffee.

Coffee and caffeine can disrupt sleep though, so make sure you don’t drink it in the evening close to bed. Some people like me are really sensitive and have to stop drinking it very early in the day so that it doesn’t disrupt their sleep.

I have my last cup sometime between 10 in the morning and noon. If I have it any later than that, it disrupts my sleep and don't feel great the next day.

Lastly, it's also a good idea to try to consume the whole coffee fruit, instead of just coffee or pure caffeine. 

Traditionally, the coffee bean is extracted from the coffee fruit for roasting. And the surrounding fruit is discarded. 

But that’s a problem because the coffee fruit contains several healthy compounds not found in coffee beans themselves.

And researchers have found that consuming whole coffee fruit concentrate can significantly enhance cognitive functioning.  

That’s why I included it in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

6. Uridine

Uridine is a natural compound commonly found in beer.

I definitely don’t recommend drinking beer, but supplementing with pure uridine can protect the brain, enhance cognition, and increase mood and motivation.

Research shows that uridine significantly increases the release of dopamine and elevates dopamine levels (29-32).

It’s important to note that uridine in food is not bioavailable, and there isn’t any foods that have been shown to increase plasma levels of uridine unfortunately (28). 

So I take a uridine supplement sublingually, usually before bed.

7. Cold Exposure

Exposing yourself to cold can also increase your dopamine levels naturally.

Researchers have found that cold water immersion increases dopamine by 250% (43-44). 

I take a cold shower every day.

During the winter, I’ll also go outside for short periods of time with hardly any clothes. It boosts my dopamine and increases my motivation.

You don’t have to be that extreme though.

You can start by finishing your next shower with one minutes of cold water.

See how it feels, and then over time, increase the amount of time you turn off the hot.

I can be a bit painful.

But the beneficial effects end up being worth it.

Another way is to stick your face, hand or foot in ice cold water.

Or you can try cold plunges, cold baths and even cryotherapy if you want!

Find what works best for you and do it regularly.

8. Meditation

Meditation is my favourite daily activity.

And research shows that it's linked to increases in dopamine (46-48). 

In one study, researchers used brain scan imaging to confirm that meditation naturally increases dopamine release by 65% (45).

It likely has these effects by stimulating the vagus nerve. 

I use the Muse headband to meditate. It gives you real-time feedback while you meditate. It makes meditation a lot more fun and tolerable.

I previously wrote about it here, and you can get it through the Muse website.

9. Ginseng

There are two types of ginseng that increase dopamine – American Ginseng and Siberian Ginseng.

American Ginseng has been shown to improve attention and cognitive processing by increasing levels of dopamine in the brain (93-94). 

Researchers have also found that Siberian Ginseng has antidepressant effects by significantly elevating dopamine levels in the brain (95). 

10. Citicoline and Alpha GPC

Citicoline (also known as CDP-Choline) is the best supplemental form of choline.

Choline is an essential nutrient for optimal brain health, but unfortunately that most people don’t consume enough of it.

Why?

Because very few foods in the Western diet contain it.

Citicoline has been shown to enhance the synthesis of dopamine, increase the release of dopamine, and increase the density of dopamine receptors in the brain (136-142). 

It also protects brain cells that release dopamine, which then prevents a reduction in dopamine (143). 

Alpha GPC is another excellent form of choline that has been shown to increase dopamine levels in the brain (144). 

Citicoline and Alpha GPC significantly improve my focus and mental energy. That’s why they are both included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

You can also find some choline in beef liver and egg yolks, but it’s better to take Citicoline and Alpha GPC because you get noticeable and immediate benefits.

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of Citicoline.

And make sure you read this article to learn more about the benefits of Alpha GPC, the optimal dosage, and the best way to take it.

Other Effective Ways to Naturally Increase Dopamine Levels in the Brain

11. Take Dopamine Precursors

You can also increase your dopamine levels by giving your body the raw materials to create dopamine. 

It’s first important to understand that dopamine is created within the body from the amino acid Phenylalanine (149). 

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid, meaning that your body cannot create it, and you must obtain it from your diet. 

Phenylalanine is converted into Tyrosine, which is converted into L-Dopa, which is then finally converted into dopamine (150). 

Vitamin B6 and iron are two nutrients that are needed for this conversion to take place.   

Both phenylalanine and tyrosine can be obtained from protein-rich foods.

Here are some healthy sources: 

• Chicken

• Beef

• Turkey

• Seafood

• Eggs

• Bananas

• Almonds

• Avocados

• Pumpkin seeds

• Sesame seeds

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health.

You can also supplement directly with Phenylalanine, Tyrosine and/or L-Dopa, along with Vitamin B6 and iron. 

Research shows that supplementing with these dopamine precursors can enhance cognitive performance by increasing dopamine levels in the brain (151-155). 

Mucuna Pruriens, a tropical plant commonly used in Ayurvedic medicine, is good source of L-DOPA and has been shown to increase dopamine levels in the brain (156-161). 

In my experience, Tyrosine and Mucuna Pruriens can sometimes be too stimulating and increase anxiety in some people.

So I prefer supplementing with DL-Phenylalanine because it has other mental health benefits besides increasing dopamine, and can actually reduce anxiety.  

12. Probiotics

Research suggests that certain probiotics can also increase dopamine.

One study found that the probiotic species Lactobacillus plantarum significantly increases dopamine.

Researchers concluded that daily intake of Lactobacillus plantarum may be able to help treat neuropsychiatric disorders (36). 

Another study found that Lactobacillus rhamnosus increases dopamine in the frontal cortex (37). 

I created and take the Optimal Biotics supplement to support my dopamine levels and mental health.

You can also read this article for 4 other ways to increase your good gut bacteria. 

And if you struggle with anxiety, here are 7 other probiotic strains that can help. 

13. Acetyl-L-Carnitine

Acetyl-L-carnitine (ALCAR) is a special form of the amino acid carnitine that helps reverse neurological decline and supports mitochondria function in the brain.

It’s often used as a natural brain booster because it provides support to brain cells, enhances cognition, and increases alertness.

It’s also been shown to help reduce chronic fatigue and improve mood.

It does a lot.

So not surprisingly, researchers have also found that it increases dopamine output in the brain (42). 

I find that it gives me a big boost in mental energy and cognitive resilience.

ALCAR is included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of ALCAR.

14. Acupuncture

Acupuncture is an alternative treatment that has been shown to increase dopamine levels in the brain.

Researchers have found that acupuncture increases the production of dopamine in the brain by stimulating the vagus nerve (9). 

Other studies show that acupuncture enhances the availability of dopamine in the brain and normalizes the release of dopamine during withdrawal (10-11). 

I really like auricular acupuncture.

Auricular acupuncture is when needles are inserted into ear.

It really helped me when I came off psychiatric medication. So I recommend finding a practitioner that provides it if you’re trying to get off medication as well.

In my experience, ear acupuncture is more effective than regular acupuncture. I don’t really know why, I’ve just personally noticed more benefits from ear acupuncture. 

I also use an acupuncture mat at home to relax before bed.

15. Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo Biloba is a plant that has been used for thousands of years to treat a number of health problems.

It’s one of the most popular natural supplements in the world, and it’s even prescribed by doctors in Germany.

It’s most commonly used to improve brain health because it’s been shown to increase brain blood flow and improve memory and attention in both healthy and unhealthy individuals. It also improves mood and mental energy, and even reduces the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.

Researchers have also discovered that it significantly increases dopamine levels in the brain (33-34). 

It increases the number of dopaminergic neurons in the brain as well (35). 

Ginkgo Biloba is included in the Optimal Brain supplement. 

16. Pregnenolone

Pregnenolone is a hormone naturally produced by the body.

But it can also be taken as a supplement.

It helps form almost all other steroid hormones in the body, including DHEA, progesterone, testosterone, estrogens, and cortisol.

So it’s very important.

And since hormones affect brain health so much, it’s been shown to enhance memory and reduce stress-induced fatigue.

Research shows that it also increases dopamine release in the brain (38). 

Whenever I take pregnenolone, it gives me a big boost in energy and supports brain function. It definitely works. But if I take it everyday, it starts to make me angry and irritable for some reason. So I only take it every so often.

17. Intranasal Insulin

Insulin is a hormone that significantly affects brain function. 

Researchers have found that it passes the blood-brain barrier and acts on insulin receptors directly within the brain.

Unfortunately, many people today develop insulin resistance within the brain.

When this happens, there is a reduction in dopamine.

Research shows that insulin resistance within the brain alters normal dopamine functioning, leading to depression and anxiety (40). 

So in a new therapeutic approach, commercially-available insulin (Novalin R) is being prepared and added to nasal spray bottles, and sprayed and inhaled through the nose to support the brain and mental health.

Intranasal insulin has been reported to significantly enhance memory, increase mental energy, reduce brain fog, improve mood, and lower anxiety and stress levels.

One possible mechanism is by increasing dopamine levels.

One study found that insulin enhances dopamine release in the brain (39). 

Another study found that intranasal insulin is neuroprotective and protects dopaminergic brain cells from damage (41). 

If you’re interested in learning more about intranasal insulin, I previously wrote a full article about it. You can read that here.

18. Forskolin

Forskolin is a natural herb historically used in Ayurvedic medicine. It’s been used for hundreds of years to treat various conditions and diseases.

The herb comes from the roots of the Indian coleus, which is a tropical plant. 

Researchers have found that it stimulates the conversion of tyrosine to dopamine and enhances the release of dopamine (49, 51). 

Other studies show that it can upregulate dopamine receptors (50, 52-56). 

I don’t take it anymore because I prefer Rhodiola and Ginseng. But when I did take it, I noticed an increase in mental energy and clarity.

19. Standing

One of the best hacks for your brain is simply standing more often.

Researchers have found that prolonged, uninterrupted sitting leads to fatigue and lower dopamine levels (57). 

I have a standing desk so that I’m not sitting all the time while working.  

20. Iron

Iron is a trace mineral found in every living cell in our bodies.

It carries oxygen to all parts of your body, and low levels can leave you feeling tired, pale and irritable.

Research shows that iron plays a key role in the regulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission, and iron deficiency can lead to lower dopamine levels (58). 

I don’t actually recommend supplementing with iron because some research suggests that too much iron can cause health problems (59). 

It’s definitely much better to just get your iron from food. 

I make sure I get enough iron simply by taking grass-fed liver capsules.

Beef liver is one of the best sources of iron, but I don’t like the taste, so I take the capsules every day instead.

Other good sources of iron include:

• Spirulina

• Dark chocolate

• Spinach

• Sardines

• Pistachios

• Raisons

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Mental Health.

21. Salt

Salt is another tasty, natural way to boost your brain’s dopamine levels.

Researchers have found that dietary salt intake increases dopamine levels (60). 

22. Theacrine

Theacrine is a natural compound that can increase energy, focus and mental clarity, and improve mood and motivation.

It’s a small alkaloid molecule found in certain fruits and plants. It’s most commonly found in a Chinese tea known as kucha.

Theacrine’s chemical structure is similar to caffeine. In fact, it’s considered a “new alternative” to caffeine because it activates similar pathways in the brain.

Researchers have found that theacrine acts through the dopamine system to provide a stimulant effect (66). 

It activates dopamine receptors, which increases motivation and wakefulness (67). 

In my experience, theacrine is a good replacement for coffee. It works and feels similar to caffeine, but it has a longer half life and less of a tolerance. It’s also less likely to disrupt sleep (61-63). 

I sometimes take a theacrine supplement when I feel like taking a break from coffee and caffeine.

You can also take them together for even better results. Research shows that theacrine and caffeine are more effective when taken together because caffeine increases the bioavailability and positive effects of theacrine (64-65). 

23. Exercise

Not surprisingly, exercise is another natural way to increase dopamine levels in your brain. 

Plenty of research shows that daily exercise leads to increased dopamine neurotransmission, including increased dopamine release and increased dopamine receptor expression and binding (70-73). 

Exercise also slows the break down of dopamine and prevents the loss of dopaminergic brain cells (71). 

Besides boosting dopamine levels, exercise can also stimulate the vagus nerve, promote neurogenesis and increase blood flow to the brain.

Many experts recommend exercise as their number one piece of advice for optimal brain health.

Exercise can be a big chore for a lot of people, so I recommend finding some sort of sport or aerobic activity that you enjoy. That way you won’t get sick of it and you’ll exercise regularly.

24. Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3s fatty acids are the highest quality fats for the brain.

Eating more of them is one of the greatest steps you can take to promote optimal brain and nervous system functioning, and boost your dopamine levels.

In one study, researchers fed animals omega-3 fatty acids, and they found that the animals had 40 per cent higher levels of dopamine in the brain than animals that didn’t receive omega-3 fatty acids (69). 

The researchers also noted a reduction in the enzyme that breaks down dopamine, and greater binding of dopamine to the dopamine receptors (69). 

Research also shows that omega-3 fatty acids can help restore normal dopamine release after traumatic brain injury (68). 

It’s important to eat enough omega-3 fatty acids through your diet because they are essential fats that your body cannot produce itself.

Omega-3 fatty acids are found primarily in cold water fish, including:

• Salmon

• Black cod

• Sablefish

• Sardines

• Herring

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Mental Health.

Unfortunately, most people don't consume enough omega-3 fatty acids through their diet.

That’s why I sometimes recommend supplementing with krill oil, a special kind of fish oil that contains the essential omega-3 fatty acids. 

25. Touch and Massage

Interpersonal touch is another natural way to increase your dopamine levels.

Researchers have discovered that touch significantly increases dopamine release in the brain (74-76).

This can include kissing, cuddling, stroking, tickling, hugging and sex. 

But it can also include massage therapy. 

Studies have shown that massage therapy increases dopamine by 31% on average (77). 

This is one reason why I regularly get a massage from a registered massage therapist. 

Massage also reduces cortisol, increases oxytocin, and stimulates the vagus nerve. 

26. Tea and Theanine

Tea has also been shown to increase dopamine levels in the brain.

This includes both green tea and black tea (79-83). 

Both green tea and black tea contain theanine, an amino acid.

Theanine has also been shown to cross the blood-brain barrier and significantly increase the release of dopamine in the brain (78, 84-85). 

I take theanine alongside my morning coffee. It’s calming and cancels out the jitters of caffeine. 

This anti-anxiety supplement contains theanine. 

27. Intermittent Fasting

Fasting allows your digestive system to take a break and triggers the release of hormones and neurotransmitters, including dopamine.

Researchers have found that intermittent fasting leads to higher levels of dopamine by increasing dopamine release and enhancing dopamine action (86-89). 

It also reduces age-related loss of dopamine receptors (90). 

I often eat all my food for the day within an 8-hour window, and then fast for the rest of the day. 

The best way to start fasting is by eating dinner around 6, not eating anything after that before bed, and then eating a regular breakfast the next day. That should give you about 12-14 hours of fasting time.

28. Taurine

Taurine is an organic compound found in food, particularly meat and seafood. It has a wide variety of health benefits.

It can cross the blood-brain barrier and elevate dopamine levels in the brain (91). 

Taurine is included in the Optimal Calm supplement.  

29. Magnesium

Magnesium is an essential mineral.

Unfortunately, a lot of people are deficient.

This is a shame because it plays a role in more than 300 biochemical reactions in your body, and it’s absolutely necessary for optimal neurotransmitter activity.

Magnesium has antidepressant effects, and one reason for this is because it increases dopamine activity in the brain (92). 

There are a number of things you can do to make sure you’re getting enough magnesium.

First, make sure you’re eating magnesium-rich foods on a regular basis, including:

• Spinach

• Chard

• Pumpkin seeds

• Almonds

• Avocado

• Dark chocolate

• Bananas

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Mental Health.

You can also increase your body’s intake of magnesium by taking Epsom salt baths.

Supplementation is also a good idea for most people.

Magnesium is included in this supplement.

Since most people are deficient, magnesium is one of the three supplements that I think everyone should be taking.

30. Folate

Folate (Vitamin B9) is an essential B vitamin that plays a key role in methylation, one of the most important processes in your body and brain for optimal energy and nervous system function.

Researchers have found that if you are depressed, you likely have lower levels of folate circulating in your blood, and people with low blood folate are at greater risk for developing depression. 

One reason for this is because folate is absolutely necessary for the production and synthesis of dopamine in the brain (99-100). 

When you have low folate levels, you will also have lower dopamine levels because your body can’t produce dopamine efficiently, and this contributes to depression (101). 

Good dietary sources of natural folate include: 

• Leafy greens

• Asparagus

• Broccoli

• Cauliflower

• Strawberries

• Avocado

• Beef liver

• Poultry

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health.

Folate also lowers homocysteine levels. 

31. St. John’s Wort

St. John’s Wort (Hypericum Perforatum) is a natural medicinal herb with antidepressant effects.

A 2015 meta-analysis concluded that it is as effective as standard antidepressant pharmaceuticals for treating depression and has fewer adverse effects (105). 

A number of studies have also shown that it significantly increases the release of dopamine and increases dopamine levels in the brain (106-110).

One study shows that it increases dopamine in the prefrontal cortex by 40% after one hour (106). 

I took a St. John’s Wort supplement years ago for my depression. It helped me, but I eventually stopped taking it and fixed the true, underlying causes of my depression instead. 

In my experience, it’s best for people who are struggling with mild or moderate depression. 

It’s important to note that St. John’s Wort shouldn’t be taken if you’re already taking antidepressant medication. 

32. SAM-e

S-Adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM-e) is a compound that naturally occurs in the body. 

It’s also available as a supplement. 

It’s most commonly used for treating depression because lowered SAM-e levels are associated with depression.

Research shows that SAM-e improves mood by producing dopamine and increasing dopamine levels in the brain (102-104). 

I took a SAM-e supplement after coming off psychiatric medication and it significantly helped me by improving my mood and energy. 

33. Curcumin

Curcumin is the most heavily researched compound within turmeric, the spice that gives curry its yellow colour.

It’s one of my favourite natural compounds for the brain.

It’s been shown to help treat both depression and Parkinson’s disease (111-112). 

Several researchers have found that curcumin increases dopamine levels by reducing the break down of dopamine in the brain (113-120). 

Curcumin is included in this supplement.

34. Reduce Inflammation

Reducing inflammation throughout your entire body is a key step towards increasing your dopamine levels naturally. 

Lots of research shows that chronic inflammation reduces dopamine synthesis and dopamine release in the brain, which then leads to a lack of motivation, fatigue and depression (121-124). 

There are many causes of chronic inflammation, including infections, mold, brain injuries, and leaky brain.

But one of the most common causes – and the one you have the most control over – is your diet. 

That’s why I recommend following an anti-inflammatory diet and avoiding foods such as gluten and dairy that can trigger inflammation in the gut and brain. 

You should also remove processed food from your diet, and increase your intake of vegetables, fruits, wild fish, grass-fed beef and organic chicken. 

Check out my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health for a full list of anti-inflammatory foods. 

Other steps you can take to reduce inflammation include reducing stress, exercising, improving gut health, treating infections and getting enough sleep. 

Make sure you also check out this article for 23 effective ways to reduce inflammation in the brain.

This supplement also helps reduce inflammation in the brain.

35. Music

Previously, I talked about how music can naturally reduce cortisol and increase oxytocin.

But it also increases dopamine. 

Researchers have found that listening to your favourite music significantly increases the release of dopamine in your brain (125-126, 129-132).

Even the anticipation of good music leads to the release of dopamine (127). 

“We are really excited about our study’s results because they suggest that even a non-pharmacological intervention such as music can regulate mood and emotional responses at both the behavioural and neuronal level.”

— Dr. Elvira Brattico

And several brain imaging studies show that listening to music activates the reward and pleasure areas of the brain, which are rich with dopamine receptors (133-134). 

Want to take it a step further?

Start making music. 

Research shows that creating and performing music boosts dopamine levels, even more than simply listening to music (128). 

Because of this, researchers believe music therapy may be an effective therapy for the treatment of disorders caused by low dopamine (130). 

Music has even been shown to help people with Parkinson’s disease improve their fine motor control (135). 

36. Get Enough Sleep

Getting enough sleep is very important if you want to increase dopamine and naturally optimize your dopamine levels. 

I used to have sleep problems and it was one of the main factors that contributed to my poor mental health.

Research shows that lack of sleep downregulates dopamine receptors, and reduces dopamine receptor availability and sensitivity in the brain (145, 147-148). 

When people are forced to pull an “all-nighter”, the availability of dopamine receptors in their brain is significantly reduced the next morning (146). 

So try your best to get at least 7 hours of high-quality, restorative sleep every night. 

If you’re having trouble with sleep, try this sleep supplement. It contains magnesium and other natural compounds that I’ve used over the years to promote deeper and more restful sleep.  

I share my very best sleep tips with my clients through our Brain Recovery Accelerator Program. We have a free online workshop that talks about the program. You can register for the workshop here.

Enjoy This Article? You Might Also Like My FREE Food Guide for Optimal Brain and Mental Health!

CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD THE FREE GUIDE

Live Optimally,

Jordan Fallis

Connect with me

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25 Powerful Ways to Boost the Mitochondria in Your Brain

It’s becoming increasingly clear that chronic mitochondria dysfunction is one of the main underlying factors that contributes to poor brain function and mental illness. 

Mitochondria are unique structures within every cell of your body. You have trillions and trillions of them, making up approximately 10% of your total body weight.

Mitochondria are considered the “powerhouses of the cell,” generating most of the energy in your body by converting nutrition into adenosine-5’- triphosphate (ATP). ATP is your body’s main source of cellular fuel. You are constantly using it, and your brain needs enough of it to work properly (106-107). 

Along with your gut bacteria, your mitochondria are critically important and need to be supported to overcome depression and anxiety, and reach optimal brain and mental health.

Mitochondria are especially abundant in your brain cells and involved in many important biological processes in the brain, including the regulation of free radicals and neurotransmitters.

In fact, monoamine oxidase (MAO), the enzyme responsible for the metabolism of monoamine neurotransmitters, is localized within the outer mitochondrial membrane (91-93). 

So not surprisingly, numerous studies show that there is a correlation between impaired mitochondrial function in the brain and many psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases, including:

• Bipolar disorder

• Major depressive disorder

• Multiple sclerosis

• Parkinson’s disease

• Alzheimer's disease

• Chronic fatigue syndrome

• Schizophrenia

• Psychosis

• Panic disorder

• Social anxiety

• Generalized anxiety and other stress-related diseases (82-90, 94-100, 102-104).

In fact, some researchers are convinced that mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in almost every chronic disease (108-110). 

Mitochondria dysfunction decreases ATP energy production and increases oxidative stress, which are commonly found in the brains of people suffering from brain and mental health disorders.

Cognitive symptoms of mitochondrial dysfunction can also include impairments in attention, executive function and memory (105).

Unfortunately, a number of psychiatric drugs damage the mitochondria and worsen the dysfunction.

But luckily, there are ways to halt and reverse mitochondrial decay.

Below are a number of strategies I’ve used over the years to support my mitochondria.

Supplements and lifestyle changes can improve mitochondrial health by increasing the availability of proteins needed for ATP production.

They also act as antioxidants, assisting the mitochondria in reducing oxidative stress.

Some of the following lifestyle changes and supplements can also increase the number of mitochondria present within the cell.

And you can start using them today to regain optimal brain and mental health.

1. Eat Nutrient-Dense, Whole Foods

Eating lots of fresh, nutrient-dense whole foods is one of the most impactful actions you can take to power your mitochondria. 

In order to thrive, your mitochondria need phytonutrients, antioxidants, healthy fats and proteins.

Dr. Terry Wahls, MD, clinical professor of medicine at the University of Iowa, is a leading expert on the relationship between nutrition and mitochondrial health.

She was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS) more than a decade ago but reversed the neurodegenerative brain disease by repairing her mitochondria with an intensive nutritional strategy.

She outlines how she recovered her health in her book The Wahls Protocol. 

Research on her protocol shows that patients witness a “significant improvement in fatigue” (67). 

She recommends eating six to nine cups of vegetables and fruits every day, including green veggies (kale, spinach), brightly colored vegetables (beets, carrots, peppers), and sulfur-rich veggies (broccoli, cauliflower).

My Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Brain Health contains a bunch of foods that you should be eating on a regular basis for optimal mitochondrial health. 

Dr. Wahls also has a fascinating TED talk that you can watch if you're interested in learning more. 

2. Avoid Certain Foods and Ingredients

Eating poor-quality foods can also wear down your mitochondria. 

Your mitochondria were not designed to deal with our current food environment and lifestyle habits. 

That’s why you should avoid refined sugars, processed flours, industrial oils and trans fats. They can damage your mitochondria and prevent them from properly producing energy.

Dr. Wahls also recommends you avoid all gluten, dairy and soy products for optimal mitochondrial health.

I personally feel much better avoiding them completely as well. 

3. Eat More Essential Fats

Healthy fats, including omega-3 fatty acids, help build and strengthen the membranes of your mitochondria. They’ve also been shown to improve mitochondrial function in the brain (5-7). 

That’s why Dr. Wahls recommends eating organic grass-fed beef or wild-caught fish, such as salmon, every day.

Avocados, nuts, seeds, coconut and olive oil are also rich in healthy fats. 

Supplementing with krill oil is another excellent option.

4. Exercise

Not surprisingly, exercise strengthens your mitochondria by increasing oxygen and blood flow and activating biochemical pathways that produce new mitochondria (8). 

Runners have more high-functioning mitochondria than non-runners, and strength training and high-intensity interval training also increase the number of mitochondria and improve the efficiency of your existing mitochondria (9, 10).

Many experts recommend exercise for brain health.

Exercise can also increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF).

5. Low-Level Laser Therapy (LLLT)

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) is a treatment that uses low-level (low-power) lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to stimulate brain cells, helping them heal and function better. 

There is strong evidence to suggest that LLLT supports the mitochondria. 

Research shows that LLLT reduces oxidative stress and increases the production of ATP energy in mitochondria (39, 40). 

These mitochondrial benefits have also been seen directly within the brain.

Studies show that LLLT increases mitochondrial activity within brain cells, and this leads to beneficial effects in behaviour (41). 

LLLT treatment has also been shown to increase the number of mitochondria, and mitochondrial oxygen usage, within the brain (42, 43).

I use these two LLLT devices myself at home to support my mitochondria and boost my brain function:

• Optimal 1000 Brain Photobiomodulation Therapy Light (Combo Red/NIR) - This is a powerful device that shines 660 nm of red light and 850 nm of infrared light. I shine it on my forehead for 5 minutes every day. I also shine it on other parts of my head and on my entire body, including on my thyroid, thymus gland and gut. I experience incredible benefits from doing this.

• Vielight Neuro Duo – This is a transcranial-intranasal headset with 810 nm of near infrared light that I’ve now been using regularly. It penetrates deeper into brain tissue and is absorbed better by the central nervous system. If you decide to get this one, you can use the coupon code JORDANFALLIS for a 10% discount. Some research has shown a 20-fold higher efficiency of light delivery to the deep brain through the nose instead of transcranial application (125).

You can learn more about LLLT in this post. 

You should also limit your exposure to artificial blue light, as excessive blue light exposure can also wear down your mitochondria. You can learn more about the risks of too much blue light in this post. 

6. Resveratrol

Resveratrol is a beneficial antioxidant compound found in grapes and red wine. 

Not only does it increase BDNF levels, but it also activates the SIRT1 gene. This gene triggers a number of positive biochemical reactions that protect and improve the functioning of your mitochondria. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting also trigger the SIRT1 gene (11-13).

In 2006, Harvard researchers found that resveratrol increases lifespan by protecting the mitochondria (14).

That’s why I take resveratrol every day and will continue to do so for the rest of my life.

Resveratrol is included in the Optimal Energy supplement.

7. Caloric Restriction and Intermittent Fasting

Restricting your calories is one the best actions you can take to improve mitochondrial function.

Studies show that eating less food reduces the demand and damage on your mitochondria. 

But reducing calories is tough to do and absolutely no fun. 

That’s why I fast intermittently instead. 

Fasting activates your mitochondria and triggers autophagy, which is an intracellular process that essentially allows your mitochondria to clean themselves by removing unwanted and damaged debris, proteins and reactive oxygen species (1, 2, 4).

This process has been shown to reduce the risk of cancer, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease (3). 

8. Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH)

NADH is a naturally-occurring compound found in the cells of all living organisms.

It plays a key role in the production of energy within the cell and is highly concentrated within your mitochondria (45). 

Depletion of NADH has been linked to a number of diseases, including depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

But stabilized oral NADH has been shown to improve all of these conditions (46, 47, 48). 

Although I don’t take it anymore, I’ve witnessed a beneficial effect from supplementing with NADH.

LLLT is also known to increase NADH in your mitochondria. 

Check out this article for other ways to increase NAD.

9. Ketogenic Dieting

A ketogenic diet is a very low-carb diet. 

When you restrict carbohydrate-rich foods, your body enters ketosis.

Ketosis is a metabolic state in which your body and brain run on fatty acids and “ketones” instead of glucose (36).

Ketones are an alternative source of energy for your brain cells and they support your mitochondria. 

When your mitochondria are dysfunctional, following a ketogenic diet can be an effective strategy to fuel the mitochondria. 

“When mitochondria are fueled by ketones instead of glucose, their ability to produce ATP is enhanced and free-radical byproducts are reduced.”

— Dr. Jong Rho, MD, Professor of Pediatrics and Clinical Neurology at the Alberta Children’s Hospital

Ketogenic diets may help treat many different brain and mental health diseases including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, epilepsy and autism. 

Exogenous ketones can also help you get into ketosis and experience the mitochondrial-boosting effects of ketones very quickly.

10. B Vitamins

B vitamins play an essential role in maintaining mitochondrial function.

In fact, your mitochondria will be compromised if you have a deficiency of any B vitamin (37). 

Deficiency is more likely if you take certain medications. 

Vitamin B1, B2, B3, B5, B6 and B12 are all included in the Optimal Energy supplement for this reason.

11. Ribose

Ribose is a five carbon sugar created naturally by your body.

Even though it’s a sugar, research suggests it does not raise blood sugar levels.

Instead, your body stores it in the mitochondria (49, 50). 

Ribose is used by the mitochondria to produce ATP and if you don’t have enough, you’ll experience low energy (51). 

Chronic stress can deplete ribose, and certain conditions have been linked to chronic ribose deficiency, including depression and chronic fatigue syndrome.

That’s why I recommend people supplement with ribose if they struggle with these disorders because it can help reduce mental and physical lethargy (52, 53).

Ribose is also included in Optimal Energy.

12. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10)

Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an antioxidant molecule found in every cell of your body.

It’s particularly concentrated in the mitochondria, playing a key role in the production of energy.

It also protects the mitochondria from oxidative damage. 

Without CoQ10, your body cannot synthesize ATP because CoQ10 is an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transport chain.

Many doctors are unaware that CoQ10 is an excellent treatment for many brain health issues, including depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, and Alzheimer’s disease. 

Low levels of CoQ10 can cause brain fog, mental fatigue, difficulty concentrating, memory lapses, depression and irritability (68-70). 

Researchers have found that CoQ10 levels are significantly lower in the depressed patients (71). 

Unfortunately, chronic oxidative stress and medications can further deplete CoQ10. 

But supplementing with CoQ10 can increase your mitochondrial energy production and reduce symptoms of depression and chronic fatigue (71). 

Food sources with high natural concentrations of CoQ10 include organic red palm oil and grass-fed beef heart (72, 73). 

But supplementing with it will give you a more significant mitochondrial boost.

13. Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ)

Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a vitamin-like enzyme and potent antioxidant found in plant foods.

It has a wide range of brain health and mitochondrial benefits.

It’s been shown to preserve and enhance memory, attention, and cognition by protecting the mitochondria from oxidative damage.

It also promotes the growth of new mitochondria in the brain (56-59). 

Since it helps grow new mitochondria, it may help you if you suffer from depression, since fewer mitochondria have been found in people with depression (63). 

Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause severe stress on brain cells and mitochondria.

PQQ has also been shown to suppress RNS and ROS (60-62). 

Researchers have also found that supplemental PQQ can be neuroprotective by increasing mitochondrial activity levels (64-66). 

I personally never really noticed much of anything from PQQ. So I don’t take it anymore and didn’t include it in Optimal Energy.

14. Magnesium

Magnesium is a vital mineral within your body.

Mitochondria are considered magnesium “storage units” because they hold onto a lot of your body’s magnesium. 

Magnesium also protects the mitochondria and plays a role in the production and transfer of ATP within the mitochondria.

And research shows that if you have a deficiency in magnesium, your brain cells will have fewer mitochondria, and they will be less healthy (54, 55). 

This is just another reason to supplement with magnesium every day.

15. Carnitine and Alpha Lipoic Acid

Carnitine is an amino acid that improves mitochondrial activity and plays an important role in energy production.

It’s known to transport fatty acids directly into the mitochondria of your brain cells. 

It’s also required to produce ATP and deficiencies are associated with reduced mitochondrial function in the brain (74). 

Supplementing with carnitine makes it easier for fatty acids to cross your blood-brain barrier and nourish the mitochondria within your brain. This can improve your mood, memory and energy levels.

Several studies show that carnitine eases depressive symptoms and improves quality of life in patients with chronic depression (75-78). 

And individuals with autism often have reduced levels of carnitine within their brain (79). 

Carnitine is synergistic with Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA), meaning that when you take them together, they are more effective at supporting the mitochondria in your brain.

ALA is a mitochondrial enzyme and antioxidant. It is fat soluble and can easily cross your blood-brain barrier.

It’s been shown to improve cognition by reducing oxidative stress in the brain.

It also protects existing mitochondria and creates new mitochondria in the brain (80, 101).

Both ALA and carnitine are included together in Optimal Energy.

16. Thiamine

Thiamine, also known as Vitamin B1, is an essential water-soluble nutrient that cannot be made by the body.

It’s used in nearly every cell in the body and it’s especially important for supporting energy levels and mitochondrial functioning in the brain.

It’s also required by nerve cells and other supporting cells in the nervous system.

Research shows that thiamine deficiency induces oxidative stress, resulting in mitochondrial abnormalities in the brain (21-22).

Healthy food sources of thiamine include green peas, beef liver, asparagus, pecans, spinach, sunflower seeds, macadamia nuts, oranges, cantaloupe and eggs. 

These foods are included in my Free Grocery Shopping Guide for Optimal Mental Health.

Thiamine is also included in Optimal Energy.

17. Creatine

Creatine is a molecule produced in the body and found in foods, particularly meat, eggs, and fish.  

Creatine is also available as a supplement.

Athletes, bodybuilders, wrestlers, sprinters often take extra creatine to gain more muscle mass.

It’s an incredibly well-researched supplement and safe to take regularly. 

Supplementing with creatine can also support the brain.

It's been shown to have neuroprotective effects. It rapidly produces energy to support brain cell function.

Researchers have also found that creatine supplementation improves function of mitochondria in the brain (25).

I personally take creatine powder before workouts.

18. Curcumin

Curcumin is the most heavily researched compound within turmeric, the spice that gives curry its yellow colour.

It’s one of my favourite natural compounds for the brain.

One reason why is because it protects mitochondria and prevents mitochondrial dysfunction in the brain (111-113).

Curcumin can be found in both Optimal Energy and Optimal Antiox.

19. Malic Acid

Malic acid, also known as malate, is an intermediate of the Krebs cycle.

It’s a key step in the pathway of energy production by the mitochondria.

And it has a number of health benefits because it improves mitochondrial function.

Malate supplementation has been shown to increase the availability of NAD+, which is necessary for producing ATP.

Malate also increases NADPH levels, which is a fundamental antioxidant in the body that promotes mitochondrial function (114).

That’s why I’ve included malic acid in the Optimal Energy supplement.

20. Niacinamide

Niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide, is a vitamin found in foods.

It’s also often taken as a supplement.

Niacinamide is the precursor to NAD+ and therefore supplementation can increase levels of this molecule and improve mitochondrial function.

Researchers have found that niacinamide prevents energy depletion in the brain (115).

It also improves the mitochondrial quality of brain cells by inducing autophagy and causing dysfunctional mitochondria to fragment (116).

21. N-Acetyl-Cysteine

N-Acetyl-Cysteine (NAC) is a modified form of the amino acid cysteine.

It’s also the precursor to glutathione, your body’s master antioxidant.

Nowadays, we’re exposed to so many environmental toxins, which cause oxidative stress in the body and deplete our reserves of cysteine and glutathione.  

But supplementing with NAC can increase and normalize your cysteine and glutathione levels. 

This can combat and reduce oxidative stress in your brain, which can then help treat several mental illnesses.

NAC can also help support your mitochondria.

In one study, NAC treatment for 9 weeks reduced oxidative damage to the mitochondria (117).

And in multiple cell studies, NAC improved mitochondrial function by reducing oxidative stress (118-119).

22. Succinic acid

Succinic acid, also known as succinate, is an intermediate molecule of the Krebs cycle that plays a significant role in the electron transport chain.

It can be purchased as a supplement to boost energy production by the mitochondria.

Succinic acid has been shown to prevent structural and functional damage to the mitochondria caused by oxidative stress (120).

And in brain cells that have mitochondrial dysfunction, succinic acid supplementation improved mitochondrial functioning by increasing glucose and oxygen usage. This led to increased levels of ATP energy (121).

For this reason, succinic acid is in the Optimal Energy supplement.

23. EGCG

Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) is the main polyphenol found in green tea.

It’s been shown to have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects.

EGCG accumulates within the mitochondria and activates a number of proteins related to mitochondrial function (122-124).

I personally drink organic green tea regularly, usually in place of coffee on days when I’m relaxing.

However, it’s important to keep in mind that the body isn't very good at absorbing EGCG and distributing it to the brain and other tissues.

That's why researchers often use large dosages of concentrated EGCG in their studies instead of green tea.

But unfortunately, large dosages of concentrated EGCG have been shown to cause liver toxicity.

So you could supplement with large dosages of concentrated EGCG and see some benefits.

But you'd be damaging your liver at the same time.

Not good.

So what should you do? How do you absorb EGCG and get the amazing benefits of it without damaging your liver?

You take it with Vitamin C.

Research shows that you can enhance the absorption and availability of EGCG by taking it with Vitamin C (9).

That's why the Optimal Antiox supplement includes a small and safe amount of EGCG, plus 500 mg of Vitamin C.

This significantly enhances the absorption of EGCG, and ensures you get all the brain and mental health benefits of EGCG (without the harm).

That’s why I take Optimal Antiox every day, and especially whenever I drink some green tea.

24. Citicoline

Citicoline (also known as CDP-Choline) is one of the most bioavailable forms of choline, an essential B vitamin.

You need to get choline from food, but most people do not get enough because very few foods in the Western diet contain high levels of it.

That’s why supplementation is often necessary for optimal brain health.

Citicoline is a supplemental form of choline that has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects.

Research shows that citicoline slows down the aging of mitochondria in the brain (125).

It also significantly enhances mitochondrial energy production and increases ATP levels in the frontal lobe of the brain (125).

Citicoline significantly improves my focus and mental energy.

You can also find some choline in foods such as beef liver and egg yolks, but the effects of Citicoline are much more noticeable and immediate because it quickly passes the blood-brain barrier and supports your brain.  

Make sure you read this article to learn more about the remarkable benefits of Citicoline.

25. Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo Biloba is a plant that has been used in China for thousands of years to treat a number of health problems.

It’s one of the top-selling natural supplements in the world, and it’s even a prescription herb in Germany.

Ginkgo Biloba is most commonly used to improve brain health because it increases brain blood flow and improves memory, mood, mental energy, and attention in both healthy and unhealthy individuals.

It even reduces the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease!

Researchers have discovered that one of the ways it supports brain function is by improving mitochondrial function and increasing the production of ATP in brain cells (126-127).

It even restores ATP levels after mitochondrial damage (128).

Ginkgo Biloba is included in the Optimal Brain supplement.

Conclusion

Paying attention to your mitochondria is crucial for optimal brain and mental health.

Luckily there are a number of dietary and lifestyle habits that can protect and support mitochondrial function.

The following steps will ensure your body and brain have healthier and more abundant mitochondria: 

• Take Optimal Energy. It’s an all-in-one mitochondrial supplement. It includes the 17 best natural compounds proven to boost mitochondrial functioning in the brain.

• Eat nutrient-dense, whole foods, including plenty of fruits and vegetables. Download my free food guide for a shopping list of the best foods to eat.

• Avoid refined sugars, processed flours, industrial oils, trans fats, gluten and processed dairy.

• Eat organic grass-fed beef and wild-caught fish, or supplement with krill oil.

• Exercise

• Try LLLT

• Restrict calories and/or fast intermittently

• Follow a cyclic ketogenic diet and/or take exogenous ketones

If you follow these strategies, there’s no doubt that you can improve your mitochondrial health and naturally restore your mood and energy levels.

Please share this post with one of your friends or family members who you think might benefit from protecting and supporting their mitochondria, because it really is an underappreciated and unknown aspect of optimal brain and mental health. 

Enjoy This Article? You Might Also Like My FREE Food Guide for Optimal Brain Health!

CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD THE FREE GUIDE

Live Optimally,

Jordan Fallis

Connect with me

References:

(1) http://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-7075-10-63

(2) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3630798/

(3) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3630798/

(4) http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jar/2011/807108/

(5) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24396061

(6) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24972878

(7) https://lipidworld.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1476-511X-11-142

(8) http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/10/1/63

(9) https://www.masscfids.org/resource-library/13-basic-information/302-mitochondrial-dysfunction-post-exertional-malaise-and-cfsme

(10) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3883043/

(11) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15749705

(12) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2492662/

(13) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24449278

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(15) http://www.nrjournal.com/article/S0271-5317(03)00234-3/abstract

(16) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20840838

(17) http://www.nature.com/tp/journal/v5/n1/full/tp2014131a.html

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(19) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22776356

(20) http://www.fasebj.org/content/19/12/1657.abstract

(21) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6493495

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